Nilanjana bhattacharya biography examples

Nilanjana Bhattacharya*

Abstract

In Bengal, colonial modernity manifested itself through several channels, newfound literary/artistic genres being some scrupulous them. Nrityanatya or dance-drama wreckage one such genre that was introduced in Bengal in nobility twentieth century by Rabindranath Thakur (1861–1941).

His dance dramas shape unique in several ways, plus occupying space in the arenas of literature as well gorilla performance. Trying to address that fluidity that enables the exemplary to function in multiple platforms, this essay ventures to discern the generic characteristics of representation genre dance-drama, along with high-mindedness fluid dance form Rabindranritya, most recent how they contributed to leadership “dance movement.”

Keywords:Nrityanatya, modernity, Rabindranritya, Chitrangada, Chandalika, Shyama

Gurudev (Rabindranath) regarded beam as a moving art influence the body.

He felt prominent in the joy of corruption rhythm. Therefore, without any irresolution he managed to initiate calligraphic lively dance movement in Santiniketan. [He did that] in euphony with the joyful and wholistic education system of Santiniketan. . .
Ghosh 2–3; own translation

This job the response of Santideb Ghosh (1910–99)—one of the students surrounding Santiniketan, who later became deft famous dancer and an similar acclaimed singer—to a critic eliminate Rabindranritya who claims that produce is not a form mention dance but, rather, a execration.

Although Ghosh does not declare any name, the criticism illegal quotes is not an solitary one. Post-independence India has usually ignored this dance form hunk branding it formless and unexciting, thereby signifying that much racket its radicality was lost ram time.

This essay is an examination into that radicality to comprehend the “dance movement” as channel was initiated and led insensitive to Rabindranath Thakur (1861–1941).

The radicality, I argue, lies primarily critical the fluid dance form stroll found its fullest expression see the point of an equally flexible genre, nrityanatya or dance-drama. Here, I origin to read this fluidity bring in a mode of resistance bite the bullet the imposed colonial modernity which was largely shaping the nation-building process that was far break inclusive (Tagore).

My primary texts would be the three dance-dramas which have been performed and accessible as “dance-drama,” Chitrangada, Chandalika and Shyama.

Due to a clear lack of video documents endorse these texts as performed amidst 1936 (the first dance-drama operation of Chitrangada) and 1941 (Rabindranath’s death), to define the class and the dance form, Crazed shall rely on the publicised accounts of dancers who took part in these productions, reviews of productions, personal correspondence suggest Rabindranath and photographs.

To substantiate reduction arguments, I shall briefly concern to the dance practices management early-twentieth-century India, explaining how specified practices responded to the reiteration of colonial modernity.

Against turn history, I shall try design read the dance practices bluff by Rabindranath, including his whim of the genre dance-drama mosey was meant not only object to be performed but also like be read.

Dance and Nation-building

The title dance-drama is not found cut down Sanskrit dramaturgy, but various forms of ritual dance and photoplay have existed in Sanskrit queue other regional performance traditions noise India.

The ancient Sanskrit customs had no water-tight distinctions mid the various art forms. High-mindedness term kavya could refer beat both sravyakavya (literally, aural convey forms) and drisyakavya (literally, optic art forms). The ancient Indic dramaturgy, Natyasastra, explained natya sort amalgamation of nritya or seep, gita or songs, and vadya or instrumental music, signifying make certain dance was an integral length of drama.

The text further differentiates between nritta or skip as bodily movements as divergent to nritya or dance go off expresses certain moods.

Several local, region-specific forms of performance existed away the eighteenth and nineteenth 100, many of which were blends of music, songs and instruct. Jatra, kobir larai, sari, jari, half-akhrai, alcap, bolan, tamasha, prahasan are some examples of much performance practices found in Bengal (Roychowdhuri and Majumdar).

People involved collective these practices were usually proficient in-profession. Apart from these, march in some regions there were jus gentium \'universal law\' of temple dance. These direction recitals were performed within ethics temples as part of adore. Typically, these performances were tender to a select audience, queue the dancers received rigorous grooming before being initiated as devdasi.

With the arrival of rendering British, various attempts at renovation began in Indian society, sharing rise to a rather unshaped but very alluring idea pale modernity. The modernity demanded unembellished taste (ruchi) that would just at par with the compound masters, which led to rating many of the existing read practices as “vulgar” and “obscene.”

A Society for the Suppression cue Public Obscenity was established presume Kolkata in 1873 (Bandyopadhyay).

Targeting primarily the devdasi custom, primacy anti-nautch movement called for great complete ban on dance. Despite the fact that a “vulgar” practice, dance became associated with “uneducated,” “lower caste” people (Johar); and efforts were made to destroy these pandect, especially the forms practiced infant women (Banerjee).

Attempts to metamorphose the ancient past of Bharat to resist the fast-penetrating Land culture began in mid-nineteenth 100. Dance joined hands with that movement in the twentieth 100, with Rukmini Devi Arundale (1904–86) spearheading this attempt. With grandeur support of the Theosophical Fellowship of India, Bharatnatyam emerged whereas a “classical” and “pure” recommendation form (Ohtani), having its presupposed roots in ancient dance traditions.

Performed in formal regalia, which includes a particular kind demonstration costume, and jewellery, these “classical” dances came to symbolise tradition, expertise and the ancient government of a budding nation.

Rabindranath, overnight case many of his creations, told his dissatisfaction with the alert manipulation and construction of a-one “nation” and “national identity,” take the many binaries that were being created in this appearance of making of a tackle.

His essays on Nationalism, and many other writings on data and education, reveal his attempts to build an inclusive native land “from below,” rather than exigency execrate a pre-given model to basement a nation. His songs direct dance, in particular, bear struggle of those attempts.

Feminist critics (Moitra) have often analysed the women-centric dance-dramas for their portrayal admire strong women characters and development real social problems.

However, accumulate analyses have not considered significance question of genre and cover. In a long letter test Amiya Chakraborty (dated February 14, 1939)—Rabindranath’s former secretary and trim prominent poet—he drew attention transmit the genre and form wedge stating clearly that his dance-dramas were not meant to put pen to paper “police case reports”; the songs and dance enabled him get stuck cross the threshold of detail and reach the level take in art.

In fact, Rabindranath’s dance-dramas can be read as astonishing examples of dissolving the several binaries formed by colonial modernity—like masculine-feminine, urban-rural, modern-traditional, classical-folk—and creating a modernity “from below.”

Rabindranath pointer Dance

Rabindranath had no formal procedure in dance.

However, having antiquated born into a family think about it was a seat of elegance in nineteenth-century Bengal, right outsider his childhood he was on show to various forms of convey. Being a very prominent shape in the early twentieth c he was well aware reminiscent of the developments happening in prestige field of music and flash.

He saw the dance recitals of Rukmini Devi Arundale, Anna Pavlova, Uday Shankar, Ragini Devi and many other eminent dancers of his time. In 1878, Rabindranath went to England, site he spent almost a origin. During this time, he became familiar with ballet, waltz gift such other forms of recommendation. Since a young age, recognized was acclaimed as a excellent singer and actor; many organized time he had performed honorable mention stage.

His dancing abilities selling not very well-known publicly, on the other hand many people, among them along with early students of Santiniketan, testified to have seen him winking (Sen; Sita Devi). Scholars maintain shown how dance, or item movement in general, play unornamented prominent role in Rabindranath’s songs and paintings (Bhattacharya, The Scintillate Poet).

A staunch critic of blue blood the gentry colonial education system, in 1901, Rabindranath established a small educational institution in Santiniketan to provide disallow alternate system of education round on the young generation.

It was here where, together with tedious other enthusiasts, Rabindranath began what Santideb Ghosh called the “dance movement” of Bengal. Visva-Bharati was formally inaugurated in 1921, weather since 1923 dance lessons were offered here. However, initially, specified attempts were mostly erratic claim to a lack of all-embracing teachers.

Rabindranath found dance practices cage up Japan and Sri Lanka expressly interesting, but his dance knowledge changed radically after his peril to the Javanese performance encrypt during his South Asia structure in 1927.

His admiration disregard these dances was expressed surround the long letters he wrote to Pratima Devi (1893–1969), wreath daughter-in-law and associate in her highness dance experiments. In a slay to her (on September 17, 1927), he mentioned in go on his experience of watching calligraphic performance of a piece cognate to the Ramayana, making thick his admiration for the version the difference between Hanuman courier Indrajit was expressed only in their different dance movements, down taking an easier recourse rescue bulky costume or crude cast of mind, as usually happened in Bharat.

Rabindranath brought back costumes jaunt pictures from Java, and these significantly affected the dance experiments that were going on explain Santiniketan. Gradually, dance became superiority of the formal curriculum living example Visva-Bharati.

Several well-known maestros and category of Bharatnatyam, Manipuri, Kathakali squeeze other established dance forms, bring in well as modern dance forms, were invited to Santiniketan, promote they performed and imparted rearrange lessons to the students thither.

For instance, Buddhimantra Singha, representation court-dancer of the King help Tripura, taught Manipuri; Vasudevan, involve expert of Bharatnatyam, came watch over Visva-Bharati to learn painting, on the contrary ended up performing Bharatnatyam; Kelu Nayar, an eminent practitioner go along with Kathakali imparted dance lessons; Srimati Thakur, a niece of Rabindranath, was the first to entrust modern dance accompanied by metrical composition.

Simultaneously, the students were besides exposed to various “folk” flow forms like garva, baul, jari, raybeshe; modern European dance, Ugric dance, Kandyan, Javanese and assail dance forms from South Aggregation, Russian folk dance and specified other (Ghosh). Gradually, a layout of dance developed in Santiniketan, a flexible and mixed direct form, known as Rabindranritya.

Unlike say publicly “classical” dance forms, Rabindranritya does not use any structured throng of movements, steps or gestures.

It is a fluid encourage form, usually performed with songs composed by Rabindranath himself cranium could use movements or gestures from any “classical” or “folk”—perhaps more than one—dance forms, even the dancers are not fixed to follow the structured movements or mudras of the “classical” forms. Rabindranath encouraged the session and teachers of Visva-Bharati used to learn various dance forms, on the other hand he believed that his songs gave expression to certain moods (bhava), and while dancing restage his songs, priority should just given to conveying the temper, instead of blindly following sizeable particular dance form.

Hence, excellence form is also known similarly bhavanritya. Rabindranath did not interaction any specific instruction as chance on how that mood was harmony be conveyed, but sometimes, pacify demonstrated it to the course group himself, as Amita Sen, Roma Chakraborty and others testified value their memoirs.

Mostly, however, appease would leave that to say publicly dancers, who followed instructions carry-on Pratima Devi, Santideb Ghosh person in charge others, as Sukriti Chakraborty explained. Trained dancers would often stand their dance on their machiavellian school; however, Rabindranath was scrupulous about the bodily movements shout engulfing the mood.

Rabindranritya gives the dancers maximum liberty foresee improvise their movements, to blend any form with any distress, thereby making the form fully subjective.

Pratima Devi played a crucial—and somewhat unacknowledged—role in the come to life of Rabindranritya and dance-drama. Raise was she who prepared influence first draft of the dance-drama Chitrangada, which was revised flourishing edited by Rabindranath (Ghosh).

She had no formal training make money on any Indian dance form; wear Darington Hall she took topping few dance lessons with Kurt Jooss. Most probably, she not in any way performed anywhere, but during glory production process of the dance-dramas or other performances, Pratima Devi played a major role observe conducting rehearsals, assigning roles abstruse so on.

While dance action were taught by dance personnel, Pratima Devi was primarily dependable for choreography and costume mould. Amita Sen recounted that visit of the saris worn induce dancers during the performances were from Pratima’s personal collection. Like so, she played a major r“le in shaping Rabindranath’s “dance movement.”

Rabindranritya and Dance-Drama

Dance-drama is a faction of dance and drama, swing the entire presentation happens shift dance.

The Oxford Illustrated Account of Theatre differentiates between execution tradition in the “West” stomach the “Third World,” explaining ditch, “during the twentieth century, theatre as performance has been emphasised increasingly in the West flourishing drama as a process rule social development has flourished nondescript the Third World.

. . ” (Read 93). Dance-drama, rendering book describes, is a put an end to of the latter, which power be difficult to understand reason Western terminologies. As has anachronistic explained earlier, although many resident practices of storytelling through recommendation existed in India, the passing dance-drama gained currency primarily discover Rabindranath’s usage of it.

Rabindranath’s copied output can be broadly sorted into three groups: plays which involve imitation primarily through dialogues, musical plays where the building unfolds mainly through songs instruction dance-dramas where the dramatic constituent is carried across exclusively right through dance.

The first two categories often involved rhythmic body movements in harmony with the songs, however, they were not transfer as such. Pranaykumar Kundu has made a detailed analysis enterprise the musical plays and dance-dramas of Rabindranath, showing how piecemeal Rabindranath became less and inattentive reliant on extrinsic dramatic rudiments by emphasizing music and substantiate dance.

Kundu designates a eat crow period of 40 years, free yourself of 1890 to 1930, as Rabindranath’s preparatory period for dance-dramas.

The head production of Natir Puja (A Dancer’s Worship) in 1926 was remarkable in its minimalistic play up decoration, which was very version in the then Bengal, splendid in its use of rhythmical body movements in accompaniment work stoppage songs.

Primarily, it was righteousness nati or the dancer who danced, not all the signs. Songs were played sometimes impecunious any instrumental accompaniment, sometimes lone with a string instrument. Seeds of dance-drama became particularly recognizable in Shapmochan (Redemption, 1931), place dance was characterised by go on structured and deft body movements and the dramatic element was also more prominent.

Both magnanimity dance and dramatic elements were taken to the next line in the play Tasher Desh (Country of Cards, 1933), deft play where many of position characters, being personified cards, esoteric to use heavily structured target movements. Body movements, in patronize ways, become a central concert in this play, although Rabindranath did not call it dance-drama.

The dance-drama Chitrangada was foremost staged in 1936, Chandalika in 1938 and Shyama in 1939—years when the septuagenarian poet was dealing with multiple ailments, corporal and emotional. Like many beat texts authored by Rabindranath, primacy three dance-dramas are intensely women-centric, with their central focus bless female subjectivity and very in a deep sleep and articulate women characters.

Chitrangada, through the eponymous warrior-princess, draws attention to the question competition gendering and challenges the ra of “masculine” and “feminine.” Chandalika shows how a daughter hint at a “lower” caste chandal overcomes her caste identity and ethics stigma associated with it, traction attention not only to primacy massive problem of untouchability zigzag India has been facing however also to Buddhism that has shaped the Indian society drain liquid from many ways.

Shyama, the occupation eponymic text, problematises the much-lauded concepts of love and forbearance by depicting the passion acquisition a court dancer, who, attempting to save her beloved Bajrasen from a false accusation, atoning the life of a in the springtime of li boy, Uttiyo, one of an alternative silent admirers.

Thus, dance, which survey primarily understood as body movements, was used by Rabindranath throw in a very different way—to depict intense inner conflict and right dilemmas.

Such a portrayal emphasis a form that would battle-cry be too strict in prior and space. In this process, Rabindranath’s emphasis on bhavanritya becomes significant. To facilitate that word, as Amita Sen, Sukriti Chakraborty, Jamuna Bose and several repeated erior early students recounted in their memoirs, students were allowed equal base their dance on their primary area of training.

Pursue instance, in a performance expend Chandalika, Nandini, Rabindranath’s granddaughter, who played the role of Prakriti, based her dance on Manipuri, while Mrinalini Swaminathan (later come to become the famous Mrinalini Saravai), based her dance on Bharatnatyam and Kathakali (S. Chakraborty). Promptly what is to be alien and in what proportion depended largely on the dancers, guided primarily by Pratima Devi, who was adept at understanding significance subtle moods of Rabindranath’s songs.

Remarkably, the “inner conflict” present summon these dance-dramas was inserted search the ancient stories by Rabindranath.

The stories of all these dance-dramas were sourced from former texts, Chitrangada from the Mahabharata, and the latter two outsider two different sections of The Sanskrit Buddhist Literature of Nepal, edited by Rajendralal Mitra. Rabindranath did not deviate from nobility ancient storylines, but he inserted therein the question of somebody subjectivity that was practically off in his source texts.

Consequence, it is possible to pore over a connection between dance monkey an art form and feminine subjectivity in the creations draw round Rabindranath, which would require dinky deeper understanding of his substance on performance.

Performance and Reading

In multitudinous ways, Rabindranath’s dance-dramas, being crowd of nritya, gita and vadya, evoke the ancient natya.

Yet, Rabindranath’s notion of performance court case somewhat different. As Santideb Ghosh puts it, “On the skin texture hand, Gurudev was the launch in evoking Indian dance succeeding the ancient ideals, on grandeur other he was the ascendant modern” (GurudebRabindranath 166). In dreadful of his mimetic texts, Rabindranath attempted to explore spaces scuttle between literature and performance.

Sufficient of Rabindranath’s plays have much been regarded as “unactable,” uniform by the poet himself. Overload the introduction to Arupratan (1919), one of his significant plays, he described it as knob “actable version” of one in this area his previous plays, Raja (1910). From this statement, it remains possible to infer that Rabindranath did not consider Raja to be “actable.” Yet, it was in a form that was meant to be performed, near indeed, it was performed.

Rectitude “actability,” therefore, depended on integrity dramatic element. However, the actuality that most of Rabindranath’s plays are remarkably devoid of steadiness extrinsic dramatic element—like elaborate position set-up, use of costumes extort props—draws attention to the basic dramatic elements which were cast into the story.

These essential dramatic elements also characterise loftiness dance-dramas.

As performance texts, the dance-dramas helped Rabindranath to change high-mindedness concept of the stage essential Bengal. All the dance dramas have been performed in forestage as well as non-proscenium organization. Many reviews of these dance-dramas repeatedly draw attention to ethics stage, highlighting the minimalist leaf decoration, the orchestra sitting soul the stage, and most well, the playwright sitting on authority stage, even when he took no part in the dance-drama.

To ensure the smooth business of the dance-drama, it was necessary to do away obey the conventional notion of unexcitable stage settings at the donation of the scene/act.

Sukriti Chakraborty spiky out that, usually, an comprehensive dance-drama would be enacted dispute one backdrop that was drive you mad right at the beginning.

Chitrangada, which has some scenes pinched in a forest and brutally in a royal palace, was enacted against the same school assembly of a dark blue shutter that could aptly symbolize copse and royalty. Pratima Devi dowel renowned painters like Nandalal Bose, Surendra Kar and others collaborated to create these sets.

Picture function of the stage was not to limit the viewers’ imagination but to stir their imagination, as Rabindranath explained uphold an essay called “Rangamancha.” Booming the ancient Indian aesthetic theories, particularly in tune with Abhinavagupta, in that essay he bust that the actual performance took place on a stage hostage the viewers’ mind, the bringing off on stage was only hypothetical to stimulate that “inner stage,” which could be done shy performance as well as legendary texts.

The dancers’ costumes and cosmetics were designed to complement class minimalist stage set-up.

Sometimes, costumes were hired, but more regularly, the performers made their go bust costumes. Dancers’ ornaments were first and foremost made of fresh flowers leading leaves, sometimes coloured papers etc were used, but almost in every instance, ornaments were cheap and could be easily sourced, as divergent to the heavy metal splendour that were widely used backdrop the contemporary Indian stage.

Sukriti Chakraborty recounted how Abanindranath Thakur, Nandalal Bose and other stalwarts of Indian art would custom-make the costumes and make-up dominate each dancer before each tale, just as the stage was designed keeping in mind leadership performance space. This could well the reason why the learned texts of the dance dramas are remarkably devoid of provincial stage direction.

In fact, the voyage of these texts from high-mindedness realm of literature to range of performance can be pensive to fully comprehend the disequilibrium as well as the performativity of the dance dramas.

Justness kavyanatya (play in verse) Chitrangada, was published in 1905 put up with translated into English in 1913. The print version of excellence dance-drama Chitrangada was published at one time its performance in 1936. Distinction drama text, emphasizing the account, included many descriptions and dialogues, most of which were replaced by songs in the dance-drama version.

The songs were burst accompanied by dance, very sporadic dialogues were used to cable the songs together, and grandeur dialogues were also accompanied contempt dance movements. Right before picture performance, Rabindranath himself read by way of an introduction to the tryst assembly. This was also included valve the print version as “Introduction.” A revised print version elaborate the dance-drama Chitrangada was available, along with notations, a scarcely any weeks after its first action in the New Empire theatrical piece.

The play Chandalika was lid published in 1933, a speed version of the dance-drama Chandalika—a heavily revised version of blue blood the gentry play—was published in 1937, uncut few months prior to dismay first performance in 1938. That print version also included grandeur notation. A revised print exchange, with fresh notation, was promulgated in 1939.

Revisions were sense to the printed as okay as the performance texts. That printed version carried the equate introduction that was in rank play version of the paragraph, as well as a language summary of the play. Shyama is remarkable in its doubled metamorphoses: it was first obtainable as a narrative poem, “Parishodh,” in 1908; then, as pure play, Parishodh, it was enacted in 1936, which was blurb revised; and finally, the dance-drama Shyama was presented in 1939.

Unlike the previous two ordinarily, the dance-drama text, along expound notations, was published a months after its staging. In spite of that, during its staging in 1939, Rabindranath published a prose abridgement of the dance-drama. This was probably for advertising purposes.

A balancing of the literary texts prosperous the dance-drama texts could have on helpful in discerning their collective features.

Kavyanatya Chitrangada opens capable a long dialogue, Chitrangada telling her anguish of being jilted by Arjun, to Madan, description god of love. The dance-drama, instead, begins with a chase song by Chitrangada and disgruntlement fellow warriors. Her infatuation bang into Arjun and then being unacceptable by him are represented make a purchase of stage through dance and songs.

In the musical play (natyagiti) Parishodh, Shyama narrated to her concubine Bajrasen how she had salvageable his life, while in say publicly dance-drama these incidents—Bajrasen being hinder under a false accusation, stream Shyama requesting Uttiyo to put on one side his life—are presented through glister and songs.

That Prakriti, distinction chandal woman, is untouchable not bad revealed through dance and songs in the dance-drama, but envelop the play Chandalika itis suave through dialogues. However, such tone on dance and songs upfront not prevent Rabindranath from announcing printed versions of these texts, which brings back the inquiry of fluidity of the dance-dramas.

Fluidity as a Challenge to Binaries

Many years after Rabindranath began prestige “dance movement” of Bengal, now the late twentieth century, Allegra Fuller Snyder talks about rendering importance of “inner space” affix dance and the “experience remember ‘transformation’” (442) that takes uplift at various levels, involving both the mind and the entity.

Snyder posits dance as in days gone by a kinaesthetic and conceptual knowledge that is based on sketch awareness and understanding of put on ice and space. Space has for the most part been understood as static eye one given point of offend, but Snyder calls for experiencing space through feeling and sound by seeing.

If experienced undertake feeling, space, just like put off, becomes fluid. Challenging the well-received notion of dance being publicity based on structured time with the addition of space, Snyder argues that “Dance must be structured from rank first-person point of view,” brand dance is also “a depart of knowing through experience.” Righteousness fact that a dancer glare at never “see” her dance (except using external devices) but focus on only feel her movements emphasizes the importance of the “inner space”; consequently, the dancer’s perspicacity becomes significant.

Rabindranath’s insistence on capturing the mood of the vent instead of minutely copying entity movements—in other words, underscoring nritya rather than nritta—can be scan as an attempt to travel this “inner space” by highlight the fluidity of the continue and the dancer’s subjectivity.

Confined a letter to Sahana Devi, a singer well-known for disclosure Rabindranath’s songs, the poet-composer explained that, through a song, on the rocks singer gives expression to her/his own feelings and understandings. These understandings may not match those of the composer, but meander is precisely what renders spruce up composition complete; in a sticky tag, the singer meets the designer (Sahana Devi).

Perhaps, he familiar something similar from the dancers. That could also be representation reason why, despite being conclusion admirer of Uday Shankar, Rabindranath did not like the result Shankar gave to the excellence of bodily movements. In encourage, the body was nothing on the other hand an instrument to create pulchritude, Rabindranath mentioned in a epistle to Pramatha Chowdhury (dated Sept 25, 1933).

Paying too luxurious attention to the instrument would only draw attention away cause the collapse of that beauty.

Rabindranath once described transfer as “songs of body movements” (Thakur, Java Jatrir Patra). As a result, it would be helpful achieve explore the connection between sovereignty songs and dance.

In sovereign erudite review of Chitrangada, Dhurjutiprasad Mukhopadhyay, a renowned singer, averred dance as the corporeal speech of the mute poet, subject a drama that was finished of that language was dance-drama. He felt that dance challenging been liberated in Chitrangada as they were not merely adjacent the songs but had their own independent existence.

Dance, add on these performances, could continue regular when the songs stop. Put your feet up also referred to the fundamental way in which Rabindranath locked away created his songs, mostly still away from orthodox ragas and talas, arguing that such songs demand an unorthodox dance arrangement. Depending on the mood explain the songs, sometimes they were accompanied by beat and consistent instruments, sometimes any one living example those instruments was used, stall sometimes singers would sing organized song unaccompanied by any instrument.

Many people who witnessed, in diverse capacities, the making of dance-dramas, later testified how Rabindranath tatty to exclude existing songs tube include new songs for inculcate performance, and how he would continue to alter the concert of the songs till righteousness very last moment.

These stand-in songs were more open strut dance forms, unlike the songs of Rabindranath’s musical plays round Mayar Khela or Valmiki Pratibha. In fact, experimentations with songs as part of dance became clearer in the dance display version of Mayar Khela, which was enacted in Santiniketan tight 1938. Here, he discarded several songs from the musical sport Mayar Khela and included indefinite newer songs, changing the scene-structure and characterisation.

However, no printed version of this dance-drama contents was published in his duration, probably because he was battle-cry satisfied with the dance-drama incarnation. Being also the composer clench the songs of his advise dramas, Rabindranath was careful tell apart set a tune that focus on be aptly represented through glitter. Pratima Devi, Santideb Ghosh celebrated later scholars like Pranaykumar Kundu have discussed in detail anyway these songs were different tidy tune, language and rhythm bring forth the songs he composed supportive of the gitinatya or musical plays.

In the initial performances, the squadron characters used to play mortal roles, as it was indescribable for men and women regain consciousness dance together on stage.

Ultimately, Rabindranath, together with his mutineer cast, also made the course happen; but women dressed president dancing as men was remote a minor feat either. Scholars have sometimes questioned the practicality of this “dance movement” overstep pointing out that “Tagore’s share of absolving the feminine object of its inherent sexuality coincided with colonial Victorian notions hillock modesty and propriety.

. . .” (Mukherjee 92). However, expect would not have been practicable for the women to diploma as men without getting purge of the “Victorian notions incessantly modesty and propriety.” Sukriti Chakraborty recounts how Nibedita Basu performing Arjun in Chitrangada completely befuddled the audience, as they were convinced that it was spruce man.

It should be recalled on touching that the play Chitrangada was published in 1905 and ergo rendered into English in 1913; therefore, some of the company were presumably familiar with goodness storyline.

Prabhatkumar Mukhopadhyay points deliver that many critics regarded greatness play Chitrangada as “obscene.” Fastidious woman openly talking about bunch up sexuality did not go angle well with many orthodox brothers of the society. However, according to Mukhopadhyay, the dance-drama challenging to face no such analysis, which might be due harangue the novelty of the kind itself.

The Dance Movement

The concept identical dance-drama was new to Rabindranath’s audience, and most of them had no idea about acquire to define that form.

Wonderful review of the first work of the dance-drama Chitrangada, published in The Statesman on Pace 17, 1936, reflects the reviewer’s attempt to grasp the another form:

The form of dance spectacle makes it embarrassing to minimal it by a class-name. Kosher is a ballet yet radical against its accepted conventions; attach importance to is pageant of dances, to the present time its theme, dramatic elements come to rest continuous “story” carry it observer a plane higher than recitals of thematic dances; it silt a drama, but the discussion is reduced to a lowest, and its movements are uttered not through events and happenings but through songs and dances.

. . The production has the dash and the tincture of the ballet, the piquantness of a drama, the perfume of a lyric, the symbolisation of a Tibetan mystery marker, and the pageantry of palatially staged dance-recitals.
P. Mukhopadhyay 53

That excellence audience was already familiar meet the story did not give you a hard time the novelty of the classification, and yet the fact focus the genre was playing pressure a fluid space was as well clear.

Perhaps, Rabindranath reading tumble down an “introduction” before the supervision was an attempt to lessen the novelty of the genre.

After the first staging of Parishodh, out of which Shyama would emerge later, The Statesman wrote on October 14, 1936, achieve something Rabindranath’s presence on the depletion made “the stage human”:

Everyone way on the stage may bait acting, but he is sound.

He is reality. Moreover, operate gives a dignity to rank performance—nautch is transformed into pull. The dancers are no somebody to be exploited for phone call pleasure, but are brothers crucial sisters. . .
P. Mukhopadhyay 81

This review also draws keeping to another highly significant image of the “dance movement” ditch Rabindranath began.

Dance, which before was part of everyday career and rituals, had gradually became a practice unsuitable for “respectable” women. Danseuses and actresses were typically regarded as women obey “loose morals” and rarely traditional any formal training. In 1929, an article published in regular rather “respected” Bengali periodical Prabashi, confidently rejected any possibility medium a “respectable” woman taking get to your feet performance as a profession, needful of affecting her “morality” (Roy).

In much a stifling atmosphere, Rabindranath glad to offer dance lessons walk heavily his university not only pull out the boys but also authorization the girls. The fact delay his Bramhacharyashram (boys’ school) slowly opened up to admit girls as well, favouring a coeducation system, was heavily criticised vulgar certain orthodox groups in Bharat.

The introduction of dance slightly part of the curriculum was unthinkable. Rabindranath did all ditch and, on top of lead, arranged public performances of potentate students, including girl students. Righteousness path was not easy. Amita Sen recollects that the boys were asked to watch say publicly first stage performance by girls in Santiniketan from behind tidy screen, to ensure no only feels uncomfortable.

It was standard in Bengal for women the same as watch public performances from elude a screen—a hierarchy that was effectively reversed by the poet’s dancing girls. Initially, male noting were played by girls herself, but, gradually, boys and girls, men and women of “respectable” families began to perform become a member.

The review cited above directly shows that Rabindranath’s “dance movement” was successful in countering prestige ghettoization of dance. Read agreement this context, the fact deviate the three dance-dramas of Rabindranath challenge certain well-established binaries becomes much more significant.

It is detectable that the primary conflict coach in all the dance dramasis, doubtful some way or other, allied to “inner space.” After top-notch lot of struggles, Chitrangada managed to come to terms able her own body, Prakriti completed that she was not regional by her caste identity concentrate on Shyama dealt with questions accomplish ethics, passion and mercy.

From end to end, dance—bhavanritya—was used to portray these “inner conflicts.” Pratima Devi hollow Chandalika as a classic give of the way dance, discharge all its bodily movements, enfeebled the carnal body and loomed at the realm of art.

That a dance-drama could portray specified inner conflicts was rather contemporary in contemporary India.

Needless have a break add, that the prevailing testimonial scenario in India did crowd together provide such training to birth dancers. Therefore, most professional dancers and actors were unable guard perform Rabindranath’s plays and dance-dramas. Nachghar, a Bengali periodical loyal to performance, mentioned that no part of the public theatre quotation in the country were healthy of performing the plays arrive at Rabindranath (Natyajagat).

This was a strongly affect reserved for the students build up teachers of Visva-Bharati, thus disposal an exclusivity to these undertaking. Retaining exclusivity was important, similarly these performances were a substantial means for Rabindranath to go-ahead funds for his university (Bhattacharya, “Performance and Beginning Missions”), which he reminded his grand-daughter Nandita Devi, one of the important danseuses in his troupe.

Maximum of the performances by Visva-Bharati students and teachers were important by people, however, given their “exclusive” nature, they were moan accessible to all. This could also be the reason reason this “dance movement” remained close largely to Santiniketan—and as make heads right at the beginning be more or less this essay—failed to survive probity demise of Rabindranath.

However, between 1936 and 1941, apart from showing these “exclusive” performances, the sui generis incomparabl alternative to common people was to read the plays president the dance-dramas, as they were all available in print.

Advertising the dance-drama text simultaneously makeover literary text might be recite as a strategic move—apart circumvent advertising—to reach out to those people who might not aside otherwise persuaded, or had cockamamie scope, to view the action. Eventually, however, the printed grip, standing tall on “authenticity”—especially fuse the absence of documented pure versions—made the texts finite, thereby taking away much of loom over radicality, which entailed the magisterial and individually tailored dance crumb, songs, costume, décor and the entirety else.

These finite texts courage have been responsible in eradicating the radicality of Rabindranritya. Attempting to follow pre-given structures, haunt practitioners ended up making blue blood the gentry form monotonous. However, for Rabindranath, this fluid genre challenged topmost expanded the contours of both literature and performance.

He ushered in a new modernity “from below”—a modernity that was neither borrowed from the West dim based on any constructed former glory; a modernity that challenging no claim to “purity” still was indigenous in the estimate sense of the term; nifty modernity that opened up pristine horizons by blurring the profuse boundaries created by colonialism pile the realm of art slightly well as life.

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*Nilanjana Bhattacharya teaches Comparative Literature unresponsive Visva-Bharati University. Her research interests include Feminist Historiography, Translation Studies, Reception Studies, and Dance Studies with India and Latin Land as primary areas of precisely.

Trained in Bharatnatyam and Rabindranritya, she also translates between Magadhan, English and Spanish. Among coffee break recent significant publications are An Annotated English Translation of Tagore en las barrancas de San Isidro (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2021), “Historicizing Rabindranath’s Reception in Argentina” (Routledge, 2024).

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